The early Buddhist Jataka versions of Ramayana are the books ‘Anamakam Jatakam’ and ‘Dashrath Kathanam’. These were translated into Chinese in the 3rd-5th cent CE. As Buddhism expanded to the north of India, these Jataka stories went with it.

Kang Seng Hui rendered the Jataka form of the Ramayana into Chinese in AD 251. In AD 472, the Nidana of Dasaratha was translated from a lost Sanskrit text by Kekaya.

Source: Lokesh Chandra, Ramayana – The Epic of Asia
Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Sanskrit. Due to Buddhist influence, Pali, and alongwith it Sanskrit, heavily influenced Sinhalese vocabulary.

In the sixth century, a Sinhalese poet Kumaradasa composed Janakitharana. This is the earliest Sankrit work of Sri Lanka. Indian and Sinhalese writers note that there was a strong bond friendship between Kumaradasa and the legendary Indian poet Kalidasa. Janakitharana was later translated into Sinhalese in the 12th century.

Source: Lokesh Chandra, Ramayana – The Epic of Asia

Picture Credit: Wikimedia Commons

In the Thai ‘Ramakien’, Hanuman is not the austere bachelor worshipped in India. He is a hero who has numerous women falling in love with him, including Ravana’s wife, Mandodari.

Ramakien has many sources – Valmiki, the Malayan Seri Ram and the Khmer Ramakerti. It is set entirely in Shyam (Thailand). Some completely new stories are there. Brahma mediates between Rama & Ravana and orders Sita’s release which is declined by Ravana, leading to him being cursed. Post war, Vibhishana marries Mandodari and rules Lanka but a surviving son of Ravana revolts. Rama despatches Bharata & Shatrughana to quell the revolt and restore Vibhishana to the Lankan throne.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Jpatokal, Wikimedia Commons, Scene from Ramakien on a mural at Temple of Emerald Buddha, Bangkok.

Ramayana Kakwin is the most ancient version of Indonesian Ramayana dating back to the 10th cent CE. Like India, there are many literary works in Indonesia exploring less well known episodes of Ramayana. Sumansantak Kakwin is the story of Rama’s grandparents Aja & Indumati and the birth of Dashratha. Arjunvijaya is the story of Ravana’s defeat by Arjuna Sahasrabahu. The Ramlila held in Indonesia is based on relatively modern versions that developed later. These are quite different from the original Ramayana Kakwin or Valmiki.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Ramanujam SR

Indian traders and the Khmer people of Cambodia together established many kingdoms from 1st cent CE onwards. Ramakerti is exquisite Khmer literature but the existing manuscripts are incomplete and the earliest dates to 17th cent CE. It follows Valmiki a great deal though the Malayan Seri Ram has also influenced it.

One unique aspect of Ramakerti is that the bow that Rama breaks to marry Sita is not Shiva’s. It is made by her father Janaka from ‘Indrajala’. Indra’s net is a concept from Atharva Veda but used by Buddhists to describe the nature of the world – each part is similar to the whole.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Marcin Konsek, Wikimedia Commons, Paintings of Reamker from Royal Palace, Phnom Penh.

The kingdom of Burma (now Myanmar) sacked the Thai capital Ayuthya in 1767 CE. The Thai prisoners of war were taken to Burma where they enacted the Ramayana. The Burmese were captivated and by 1800 CE, the Burmese version of Ramayana ‘Rama Yagan’, also called Yamayana, was composed. It is considered a milestone in Burmese literature.

A Burmese version of Ram Lila called ‘Yama-pwe’ emerged which tells the story of Yama (Rama) and Thida (Sita). The performers wear elaborate masks which are also worshipped. Sita’s abduction is the most performed scene. The magical deer that distracts Rama to enable the abduction is Ravana’s sister Gambi (Surpanakha), who then is hurt when Rama shoots at the deer.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Ramanujam SR

Indian traders were visiting Indo China since 1st cent CE. After the Chinse Han empire receded from Champa (present day Vietnam), the traders became a major influence. Ramayana gained popularity and its author Valmiki was considered an incarnation of Vishnu.

An image of Valmiki and an inscription have been found in a Champa temple belonging to the period of King Prakashadharma (7th cent CE in). The inscription extols Valmiki as an avatara of Vishnu.

Source: Kamala Ratnam, Ramayana in Laos
Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Ravana Lifting Kailasa. Danang Museum, Vietnam

Islam became the main religion of Malaya between 13th -15th cent CE and that left its imprint on the epic. The first manuscript of ‘Hikayat Seri Ram’ dates to 1633 CE. Ravana prays to Prophet Adam who gets him the kingship of the four lokas.

Ravana marries a princess in each loka and the respective sons born rule that loka on his behalf – Indrajit rules Devaloka, Mahiravana rules Pataal etc. The stories of the birth of Rama & Sita, their marriage and exile, Sita’s abduction, Lakshmana’s encounter with Shurpanakha and the post war events, are all widely different from Valmiki.

After the war, Vibhishana marries Rama’s sister Kikavi, a name not present in Indian versions. After a second exile, Sita reconciles with Rama in the end and their sons Luv & Kusha marry rakshasa princesses. Strangely, only the description of Rama Ravana war follows Valmiki.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Prambanan(Parambrahm in Sanskrit) is a grand temple complex in Yogyakarta in Java, Indonesia. A full scale Ramayana is sculpted on its walls. They are distinctively Indonesia and are from the versions of Kawi Ramayana. The Prambanan temple looks to be dedicated to the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh). It was dedicated solely to Shiva originally and the architecture is made to resemble the abode of Shiva.

Another 14th cent CE Shiva temple in East Java at Panataran also has similar Ramayana reliefs on its wall.

Angkor Vat in Cambodia, now a Buddhist shrine but originally dedicated to Vishnu, also has battle scenes from the epic on its walls which are considered masterpieces.

Source: Lokesh Chandra, Ramayana – The Epic of Asia
Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Ramanujam SR

The Portuguese missionary J Fenichio wrote a book ‘Libro da Saita’ in 1609. He wrote about the ten avataras of Vishnu and the story of Rama. He largely follows Valmiki. The existing manuscript covers the account from Dashratha’s yajna to Sita’s agnipariksha. Some pages are lost so we don’t know if wrote more. He composed it in the South India and his account of Sita’s and Hanuman’s birth reflect Southern versions.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the story of Rama was mentioned in many Dutch, French & Spanish works. The story of Rama first appeared in English when Abbe Dubois’ French book was translated into English in the early part of the 19th cent CE.

Source: Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Hobutsushu is a collection of stories one of which resembles an abridged version of Ramayana. It is believed to have come through the Chinese version of Ramayana, the Tripitaka, and therefore carries Buddhist influence. According to the text, a group of monkeys supported Rama in his search for Sita. Brahma Sakka (or Indra, the ruler of heavens) was impressed by the sacrifice of Rama sincerity of the monkeys. He transformed himself into a small monkey and guided the army to victory.

Source: Minoru Hara, Textual theme of Ramayana in Japan

Picture Credit: Wikimedia Commons, A Hobutsushu book

In about the end of the ninth century we even find an East Iranian version of the Ramayana in Khotanese, an Iranian dialect prevalent in Khotan in Central Asia.

The Khotani Ramayana is influenced by the slightly older Tibetan version. The key difference is that in the Khotani Ramayana, Rama is not Vishnu’s avatar but a Bodhisatva. The text starts with a preface in which the Buddha preaches his philosophy and it is made known that Buddha was Rama in a previous life while Maitreya (future Buddha) was Lakshmana.

Khotani is termed an East Iranian language and is different from Persian. Kingdom of Khotani is now part of Xinjiang.

Source: Lokesh Chandra, Ramayana – The Epic of Asia
Kamil Bulke – Many Ramayanas – Ramakatha.

Picture Credit: Aurel Stein, Wikimedia Commons. Cave where the Tibetan version of Ramayana was found. Khotani Ramayana is based on Tibetan version.