Devas and Asuras came together to churn the cosmic ocean. The Himalayan Mountain Mandara became the churning stick, and the divine serpent Vasuki became the rope rotating the churning stick. Vishnu’s Kurmavatar (tortoise) became the base, and Shiva swallowed the poison that emerged, turning his throat blue (Neelkantha).

Eventually, a pot (kumbha) containing amrit (nectar) emerged. The asuras grabbed it, but Vishnu, in the form of the charming woman Mohini, wrested it back for the Devas, who took the pot and ran. Some say it was Indra’s son Jayanta, while others say it was Vishnu’s mount Garuda who took the pot. As the devas sped off with the pot, four drops of nectar fell at the four places in India that host the Kumbh (pot) Mela.

The Skanda Purana mentions the amrit manthan story and explains the astronomical conjunctions when the four Kumbh melas are held at different places, but it does not connect them directly. The story of the four drops falling from a kumbh is a folk tale, not a Puranic one, but it is well known across the country. Potters are called ‘kum(b)hars’ in Hindi.

The Samudra manthan is popular across the ancient and wider Indosphere. Bangkok airport even has a large sculpture depicting it. It is a story of collaboration among all deities.

Source: Diana Eck & Kalpesh Bhatt, ‘Understanding the Kumbh.’

Picture: Pilgrims and vehicles cross the Ganga at Sangam on the GT road bridge as the sun sets behind the Bade Hanuman temple.

The Rig Veda says, “Those who bathe at the confluence of the white and black rivers, the Ganga and Yamuna, go to heaven. Those of firm mind who give up their bodies here attain immortality.”

This verse is in the Asvalyana Samhita of Rig Veda, which has 212 additional verses compared to the common Sakala Samhita of Rig Veda. Scholars opine that the additional verses are later creations, dated to around 1200 BCE. They also believe these verses were composed in eastern India, as they reference places and personalities associated with these regions. The Mahabharata has ample references to Prayag as well.

Source: J.H. Dave, “Immortal India,” B.B. Chaubey, “Additional Mantras in Asvalyana Samhita.”

Picture: Pilgrims take Snan at Triveni Sangam.

After the Samudra manthan, the devas sped off with the pot of nectar (amrit). Four drops fell at four tirthas, sanctifying them—Prayag, Nashik, Ujjain, and Hardwar. Some historians suggest that the word Kumbh was used only for the Hardwar mela originally, and it got associated with the other three tirthas later. They argue that only in Hardwar does the mela occur in the Aquarius (Kumbha) zodiac, whereas the other three happen in the Leo zodiac.

The 12-yearly melas at Ujjain and Nashik are still popularly called ‘singhasth’ (Leo) melas. The festival at Prayag is recorded as a Kumbh Mela in an official document only in the 1870s. However, records from many European travelers and missionaries testify to 5-yearly, 6-yearly, 7-yearly, and 12-yearly snan melas at Prayag. Nicolas Manucci, who served the Mughals in the late 17th century, is one among them.

Tradition remembers that Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Guru Nanak, and Swami Tulsidas attended the Prayag mela in their time. The name may or may not be ancient, but the tradition is ‘pracheen kaal se’ (from times immemorial).

Source: Drs Aseem & Manjushree Srivastava, ‘Allahabad Kumbh.’ Kama Maclean, ‘Modern Beginning of Ancient Kumbh in Allahabad.’

Picture: Pilgrims take a Snan at Triveni on a normal day.

The frequency of the Kumbh mela is 12 years, which corresponds to the time Jupiter (Guru) takes to move around the sun. An auspicious snan takes place at Hardwar every 12th year when Jupiter is in Aquarius (Kumbh) and the sun enters Aries.

The Kumbh happens every 12th year at each of the four tirthas by rotation, leading to 3-year gaps between Kumbhs. The Purna Kumbh occurs every 12 years. Ardh Kumbh happens every 6 years only at Prayag and Hardwar. The Mahakumbh occurs every 144 years (12 cycles of Kumbh) only at Prayag.

There are further complications: Jupiter takes 11.86 years, not 12, to circuit the sun. Thus, every 7th mela at each tirtha happens after 11 years to correct this. The Ardha Kumbhas are also adjusted to 5 and 7 years accordingly. For example, the Hardwar Kumbh happened in 2021 after the last one in 2010. This raised questions during the Covid pandemic, with people wondering why it did not happen in 2022 as per the 12-year cycle.

It is also possible to find reports (including a CAG report) that names 2013 Kumbh also as Maha Kumbh.

Source: Nityanand Mishra on YouTube

Picture: Mahakumbh pilgrims taking shelter in a Satsang camp.

Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist monk, witnessed a great mela at Prayag in 643 CE in the months of January-February, the usual time of Kumbh. He wrote of a gathering of pilgrims to an ‘age-long festival.’ He observed that during the festival, many hundreds came to the sangam to bathe and die. He described how King Harsha donated all possessions he had accumulated over 5 years during the mela. He noted that such donation festivals happened every 5-6 years and Harsha’s predecessors also did so.

Some Buddhist texts mention that Emperor Ashoka also held donation festivals (moksha parva) every 5 years, though they do not specify where he held them. Interestingly, Harsha propitiated Buddha, Surya, and Shiva on successive days, making it not an exclusively Buddhist festival.

Source: Drs Aseem & Manjushree Srivastava, ‘Allahabad Kumbh.’ Kama Maclean

Picture: Timeless sunrise over Ganga, downstream of Sangam.

The Magh Mela, a significant snan (bathing) festival, is held at Prayag annually. Almost all historians agree that this mela at Prayag has been attested since ancient times. The Narasimha Purana (5th–6th century CE) describes a month-long annual mela at Prayag during the Gupta period, occurring in the month of Magh. Historical records show that King Harsha and his predecessors held a donation mela at Prayag every 5–6 years. This suggests that periodic melas were a tradition at Prayag, and every 5–6 years (matching the frequency of the Ardh Kumbh and Kumbh), they took the form of a donation festival. Even now, pilgrims consider it important to donate at Kumbh.

Bathing by groups of holy men is recorded from a few centuries later, particularly when Hindu and Buddhist kings of the region lost power to Muslim rulers. It is likely that, in such circumstances, hosting large donation festivals was no longer feasible.

Source: Drs. Aseem & Manjushree Srivastava, Allahabad Kumbh. Kama Maclean, Modern Beginning of Ancient Kumbh in Allahabad.

Picture: An elderly couple take a snan and worship Sun on the Ganga

Veni means a braid of hair. The Triveni Sangam (confluence of three rivers) is believed to be called so because the rivers intertwine in a manner resembling a woman’s braid. A ritual known as Veni Daan is performed at the confluence, where married women offer a small part of their hair while praying for the health and well-being of their husbands. Additionally, Lord Vishnu in Prayagraj is worshipped as “Veni Madhav.”

Source: P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastras.

Picture: A view of Sangam.

Then we struck into the hot plain, and found the roads crowded with pilgrims of both sexes, for one of the great religious fairs of India was being held… at the junction of the sacred rivers, the Ganges and the Jumna. Three sacred rivers, I should have said, for there is a subterranean one.

These pilgrims had come from all over India; some of them had been months on the way, plodding patiently along in the heat and dust, worn, poor, hungry, but supported and sustained by an unwavering faith and belief; they were supremely happy and content.

[Few among us] could exhibit the equivalent of this prodigious self-sacrifice, but the rest of us know that we should not be equal to anything approaching it. Still, we all talk self-sacrifice, and this makes me hope that we are large enough to honor it in the Hindoo.

Mark Twain wrote this excerpt in his book ‘Following the Equator.’

Source: Sandeep Balakrishna, Pilgrimage Across Time, Open Magazine

Picture: An enormous Havan at Kumbh 2025

Kalpavasis are individuals who stay for a month or more during the annual Magh Mela or Kumbh Mela, leading an austere life throughout their stay. They follow a strict regimen that includes, Bathing in the Ganga twice daily (morning and evening), Eating only once a day, Engaging in meditation, chanting, and satsangs (spiritual discourses). The purpose of Kalpavas is believed to be spiritual purification, ultimately helping Kalpavasis attain liberation from the cycle of rebirth.

Surveys indicate that Kalpavasis come from diverse socio-demographic backgrounds, representing various rural-urban groups, genders, literacy levels, income groups, castes, and professions in proportions similar to the broader society. Estimates suggest that the number of Kalpavasis at the Kumbh Mela ranges from 1 million to 2.5 million. Interestingly, more than 50% of Kalpavasis have visited Prayagraj at least five times.

Source: Anand Rai, A Survey on the Socio-Economic Dynamics of Kalpavasis. Bhagyashree Mishra & Ashish Saxena, Socio-Religious Narratives of Kalpavasis.

Picture: A simple pilgrim to Kumbh 2025.

The Mahamaham festival takes place in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, every 12 years. It is also known as Mamangam or Kudamuzhukku (Kumbh Snan) in Tamil. The festival occurs when the full moon aligns with Magha Nakshatra, and Jupiter is in Magha or Simha Rashi (Leo sign).

According to legend, during the Pralaya (cosmic dissolution), Shiva set afloat a kumbha (pot) containing amrit (nectar of immortality) and the seeds of creation. The pot eventually came to rest in Kumbakonam, where Shiva, in the guise of a hunter, broke it open with an arrow. The spilled amrit is believed to have gathered in the Mahamaham Tank, which is the central site for the ritual bath.

On the day of Mahamaham, Ganga is believed to visit the tank, and nine great rivers are also thought to arrive to rejuvenate themselves. The tank has 21 wells, each named after a different deity. As part of the festival, deities from temples across Kumbakonam are carried in a grand procession around the tank.

Ritual bathing festivals (snan festivals) are common across India. A similar snan festival was recently revived in Bansberia, Hooghly. Additionally, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana celebrate Pushkaram festivals to honor the Krishna and Godavari rivers, and the Sindhu festival has also been revived.

Source: P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastras. Diana Eck, Immortal India

Picture: 19th century picture of Mahamaham by Wiele & Klein, Germany.

The renowned 8th–9th century CE philosopher and saint, Adi Shankaracharya, is credited with reviving and organizing Hinduism. He is best known for systematizing the Advaita Vedanta philosophy and establishing four iconic mathas (monastic centers) in the four cardinal directions of India. He is also believed to have structured the sanyasi (ascetic) community into ten akhadas (monastic orders), each with a distinct surname. Initiates into an akhada adopted a new name incorporating this surname, which is why they are known as the Dasnami (Ten Names) Akhadas.

Historians suggest that Shankaracharya established these akhadas at the four tirthas (pilgrimage sites) now associated with Kumbh Melas. These periodic gatherings of akhadas at the Kumbh Melas functioned as religious parliaments, where pilgrims came to hear discourses and seek blessings. Additionally, akhadas were granted precedence for ritual bathing, sometimes leading to disputes over bathing sequences.

Some scholars suggest that Madhusudan Saraswati (1525–1642 CE) transformed these akhadas into semi-military organizations to protect pilgrimage sites from Muslim invasions. Historical records mention that in 1750 or 1751 CE, the Gosain Naga Sadhus (a branch of the Dasnami akhadas) repelled an attack on the sangam (confluence of rivers) by the invading army of Ahmed Khan Bangash. However, historians debate whether this event took place during a Kumbh Mela.

Source: Dilip Roy & Indira Devi, Kumbh: India’s Ageless Festival. Drs. Aseem & Manjushree Srivastava, Allahabad Kumbh

Picture: Sadhus at Sangam

Mauni Amavasya is considered the most sacred bathing day during the Kumbh Mela. On this day, both the Sun and the Moon align in Capricorn (Makar Rashi).

Although Amavasya (New Moon day) is generally regarded as inauspicious, this particular Amavasya is revered for its spiritual significance. Some sources suggest that Ravana was killed on an Amavasya, leading to its association with misfortune. (However, his death is also linked with Vijayadashami.).

It is believed that the Moon’s effect on humans and vegetation is at its weakest during Amavasya, making it a day of silence and penance. Despite the general belief about Amavasya’s inauspicious nature, it has always been highly esteemed for religious donations (dana) and ritual baths, especially at river confluences. It remains the biggest bathing day at the Prayag Kumbh Mela, attracting the largest gathering of pilgrims.

Source: H.D. Sankalia, Ramayana in Historical Perspective

Picture: Children preparing for an evening theatre performance.