Quick read: Lothal, near Ahmedabad, has a 4500 year history of household toilets.

Note: The archaeological site of Lothal, near Ahmedabad, offers a fascinating glimpse into ancient sanitation practices. Dating back to 2500 BCE, each house in Lothal boasted well-developed water-borne toilets, connected to extensive drainage systems constructed with burnt clay bricks. Manhole covers and chambers facilitated maintenance, showcasing a sophisticated understanding of sanitation engineering.

Evidence suggests similar, advanced toilet systems existed in other early civilizations around the world. We find sitting-type toilets in Egypt from 2100 BCE and sophisticated public bath-cum-toilets in the Roman Empire.

However, between 500-1500 CE, knowledge of these sophisticated sanitation systems seems to have faded globally. Chamber pots became the norm for the wealthy, while open defecation became unfortunately widespread for the rest. In India, too, the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization coincided with the loss of this vital knowledge, leading to a resurgence of open defecation.

The invention of the modern flushing toilet by John Harington in 1596 resumed good sanitation practices.

Source: “History of Toilets,” Dr Bindeswar Pathak, Founder of Sulabh International

Picture Credit: Bathroom cum Toilet Complex at Lothal. Bernard Gagnon, Wikimedia

Quick Read: Cowasjee’s nose was fixed through plastic surgery.

Note: In the brutal Anglo-Mysore War in 1792, Cowasjee, a bullock cart driver for the British army, endured a horrific ordeal. He was captured by Tipu Sultan’s forces and his nose and one hand were cut off. However, near Pune, a remarkable event unfolded for Cowasjee. A member of the brickmaker caste, using an innovative technique, reconstructed Cowasjee’s nose using a flap of skin from his forehead. This groundbreaking procedure, common in India at the time, attracted the attention of British medics who documented it in the “Gentleman’s Magazine” of 1794.

This detailed account sparked the interest of surgeon JC Carpue, who meticulously studied the technique and eventually practiced it on cadavers. In 1814, he successfully performed the first documented rhinoplasty in Europe on an English Captain, drawing inspiration from Cowasjee’s experience.

The first reference to plastic surgery is in the Sushruta Samhita two millenia ago. Sushruta (6th cent BCE) can be regarded as the father of surgical sciences (shalya tantra).

Source: Gentleman’s Magazine, October 1794.
Aspects of the History of Plastic Surgery since 16th century, JP Bennett
Britannica.com

Picture Credit: The image is an engraving of the procedure. Welcome Library.

Quick read: The floral and colorful calico threatened European fabrics and was therefore banned.

Note: Calico, a humble plain-woven cloth crafted from unbleached cotton, carries a history as rich as its fabric. Born in Kozhikode (Calicut), Kerala, its name reflects its origin. Later, Chintz emerged, a vibrant form of Calico adorned with floral and colorful patterns. Introduced to Europe by Portuguese and Dutch traders, it sparked the “Calico craze,” a phenomenon that threatened European textile industries, ultimately leading to bans.

However, this episode only scratched the surface of India’s ancient and enduring textile tradition. Evidence suggests cotton and silk production thrived as early as the Harappan civilization, with finds like terracotta spindle whorls and dyed cotton fragments. References to “karpasa” (cotton) in the Vedas and textile depictions in Ajanta paintings further solidify this legacy.

From the Roman Empire onwards, India served as a major exporter of textiles, both cotton and silk. Fragments of Gujarati cotton unearthed in Egyptian tombs dating back to the 5th century CE stand as silent testaments to this thriving trade.

Source: “Technology in Ancient India”, a presentation by Michel Danino on academia.edu.

Picture Credit: Chintz from Kerala from early 18th cent CE. Michel Danino

Quick read: Indus-Saraswati civilization had a remarkably consistent system of weight measures.

Note: The Harappan civilization, flourishing around 3300-1300 BCE, employed a remarkable standardized weight system using cubic stones. This ingenious system was based on a binary progression for smaller weights (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32), transitioning to a decimal multiples for larger ones. 32 rattis was the weight of the most commonly found coins. Notably, this system extended beyond trade, suggesting its use in other measurements as well.

This impressive uniformity spanned all Indus Valley sites, highlighting the civilization’s interconnectedness and organizational prowess. The system’s influence endured for centuries, impacting later kingdoms of the Gangetic Plain (300 BCE) and finding mention in texts like Arthasastra and Manusmriti.

Even today, echoes of this ancient ingenuity resonate in India. Gold is still traditionally measured in “tolas,” and “ser” was a common weight unit until recent times. Despite their continued use, the original names of these weights remain veiled by the yet-undeciphered Harappan script.

Source: “Metrology & Linear Measurements” by Michel Danino in the History of India Series on Protohistoric Foundations.

Picture Credit: A set of weights excavated at Dholavira. Michel Danino.

Quick read: High phosphorous content has helped the pillar remain rust free for 1500 years.

Note: Towering at 7 meters tall and weighing a colossal 6 tons, the Delhi Iron Pillar stands as a testament to ancient India’s remarkable metallurgical prowess. Believed to be crafted by the early Gupta kings around the 4th century CE, this structure has remained virtually rust-free for over 1600 years.

Made of 98% wrought iron, its secret lies in the intricate horizontal forge welding technique employed by its creators. This meticulous process resulted in a remarkably pure and dense metal, further protected by a thin layer of iron phosphate. The precise formula for this protective layer was unraveled by Dr. R. Balasubramaniam of IIT Kanpur.

Similar examples of rust-resistant steel have been found at Dhar (13th century CE) and the Konark Sun Temple, suggesting a widespread mastery of this advanced technology in ancient India.

Moreover, a fascinating link exists with the traditional metalworking community of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, the Agarias. Tests conducted in the 1960s revealed that iron produced by the Agarias possessed properties almost identical to the pillar’s metal, highlighting the continuity of this unique knowledge across generations.

Source: “Technology in Ancient India”, a presentation by Michel Danino on academia.edu

Picture Credit: Dennis Jarvis. Wikimedia Commons

Quick read: Covid tikah is a carryover from small pox language.

Note: Long before the discovery of vaccination in the late 18th century, a practice known as inoculation or variolation offered some protection against the dreaded smallpox. While this technique gained attention in Europe only in the 18th century, it had been widely practiced in India, China, and the Caucasus for centuries earlier.

In India, the method, called “tikah” by the natives, involved introducing pus from a mature smallpox pustule into a healthy individual, typically through a prick on the forehead. This mild exposure triggered a controlled infection, granting partial immunity to future outbreaks.

Historical records like an East India Company report from 1731 confirm this practice’s longevity. It states that “inoculation… has been known in the kingdom of Bengal about 150 years,” placing its origins in India well before the 18th century. Moreover, another report from 1767 describes specialized Brahmin communities traveling in groups to perform inoculations during outbreaks.

British also condescendingly observed that ignorance and barbarism can also produce valuable improvements. Under British rule, these techniques gradually died out.

Source: “Indian Science & Technology in the Eighteenth Century”, Dharampal.

Picture Credit: The Wikimedia image is of anti cholera inoculation camp at Kolkata in 1894.

Quick read: Tamil Nadu produced wootz steel with a mixture of iron ore, charcoal and glass.

Note: Wootz steel, once a marvel of the ancient world, captivated with its ability to be forged into exceptionally thin, yet incredibly strong blades. Fashioned into swords and weapons, particularly in Damascus, it earned the legendary status of “Damascus swords” renowned for their razor-sharp edges and remarkable toughness. This marvel, sadly, faded from prominence in the 19th century CE.

Early British experts, upon encountering wootz steel, declared it surpassed any steel from elsewhere in the world. Its intricate crafting involved sealing a mixture of iron ore, charcoal, and glass within crucibles and heating them intensely in furnaces. Evidence suggests its earliest development occurred in Tamil Nadu around 1st century BCE, later spreading across South India and even reaching Sri Lanka.

Beyond its Indian origins, wootz steel transcended borders, known in the Mediterranean region as Hinduwani or Telin (Telangana). Interestingly, the name “wootz” itself is believed to be a misinterpretation of the Tamil word ‘urukku’ (alloy) or ‘ukku’ (melt), emphasizing its inherent nature of combining elements to create something extraordinary.

Source: “Technology in Ancient India”, a presentation by Michel Danino. academia.edu

Picture Credit: Weapons made of Damascus steel. Michel Danino

Quick Read: Tankai refers to a method of stitching planks together instead of nailing them.

Note: The Tankai method, a remarkable Indian shipbuilding technique, utilized stitching instead of nails to seamlessly bind wooden planks together. From its Hindi meaning “to put a stitch,” this ancient ingenuity resulted in flexible hulls. These agile vessels, ranging from 3-ton catamarans to 650-ton behemoths, dwarfed contemporary European ships and effortlessly navigated challenging waters.

Stitched hulls possessed unique resilience, handling rough seas and monsoons better than their European counterparts nailed rigidly together. This flexibility also proved advantageous in negotiating treacherous shoals. Stitched ships were dominant until the 15th century when the need for mounting heavy cannons on ships led to a shift towards rigid, nail-based construction in Europe.

India’s maritime prowess has deep roots. The Harappan civilization, flourishing around 3300-1300 BCE, constructed the world’s first known dry dock at Lothal. Evidence suggests they used flat-bottomed reed boats, a tradition still alive today.

The Indian Navy is currently recreating a 5th-century stitched ship based on historical drawings. This vessel is destined to set sail for Bali in 2025, showcasing the enduring legacy of the Tankai method.

Source: “Ship Building – Historical Perspective”, Admiral Sunil Lunba.

Picture Credit: 5th Century Ajanta painting redrawn by Radhakumud Mukherjee

Quick read: India produced pure zinc in 9th CE after perfecting zinc smelting for 1000 years.

Note: Brass is a common alloy of Copper and Zinc. It has been in use for several thousand years. Arthashastra, Ramayana, Mahabharata and other texts refer to zinc and brass as arakutah and ritu or pitala respectively.
However, Brass was produced from copper and Zinc ore and not pure Zinc. Therefore it had low Zinc content.

Pure Zinc was difficult to isolate as it has a low boiling point of 907°C (Iron -2900 deg, Al- 2600 deg, Cu – 2500 deg). It vaporizes when its ore is smelted. Zinc smelting technology was developed in Zawar mines in Rajasthan from 1st Century BCE. Pure Zinc production was perfected in Zawar between 9th to 12th CE through distillation process. This made it possible to produce Brass with higher Zinc concentrations. Modern Zinc making technology developed in Europe only in 18th century.

Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL) was started as a PSU in Zawar in 1965. Zawar’s history of Zinc production was discovered only in 1980s through excavations jointly sponsored by the company. HZL is now owned by Vedanta and is worth 1.40 Lakh crores in the stock markets.

Source: “Zinc Production in Ancient India”, JS Kharakwal.
Nirupama Kotru, IAS in The Week.

Picture Credit: Remains of an ancient zinc furnace at Zawar from Michel Danino

Quick read: Its foundation is shorter than an average human.

Note: The Brihadeeswara Temple, built by King Rajaraja Chola between 980-1010 CE, remains a testament to ancient Indian ingenuity. This magnificent structure, defying conventional wisdom, stands tall after a millennium with just a 5-foot foundation. Its secret lies in its groundbreaking construction technique.

The Brihadeeswara Temple does not rely on mortar or binding materials. Instead, it utilizes a remarkable interlocking system known as ‘buzzle technology’. Granite blocks are meticulously carved and fitted together with such precision that the pressure applied at the top prevents individual stones from moving. This eliminates the need for plaster, resulting in a seamless and aesthetically stunning edifice.

Further contributing to its resilience is the innovative foundation. Instead of a solid base, the temple rests on a sand-filled platform. This “sandbox” acts as a flexible cushion, absorbing seismic vibrations and distributing stress evenly. Interestingly, this principle shares similarities with traditional Indian charpoy beds, where tension in the ropes increases with applied weight, providing remarkable stability.

Source: Engineering Performance of the Foundation of Thanjavur Brihadeeswarar Temple, K Arunkumar & K Premlatha, Springer Professional.

Picture Credit: Ramanujam S.R